Virology by
Cameron Brenner, Rachel Butler, Lital Avnor, Naomi Mayman, Are Salzberg, and Tali Silverstone
D-Res
What is a virus?
Harmful viruses
By Tali Silverstone
Ebola Virus
Ebola Virus is a severe, often-fatal disease in humans and nonhuman primates such as monkeys, gorillas, and chimpanzees. It was first recognized in Africa. People can be exposed to Ebola virus from direct contact with the blood of an infected person. People can also be exposed to Ebola virus through direct contact with objects, such as needles, that have been infected. It is not airborne. The symptoms of Ebola consists of a fever, headache, joint and muscle aches, sore throat, and weakness, followed by diarrhea, vomiting, and stomach pain a rash, red eyes, internal and external bleeding. Doctors and scientists have not yet found a standard treatment besides antibiotics for Ebola Virus. The recovery for Ebola virus takes about 9-21 days.
Helpful viruses
Adenovirus
Adenoviruses cause the common cold, and can effectively carry the new corrected DNA to the nucleus of the cell. In order to use these as vectors, their harmful genes are removed.The genes, however, are not integrated in the DNA. Therefore, they are not permanent, lasting for a few days to a few weeks. Adenoviruses can also invade slower dividing cells, such as lung cells. Large amounts of adenovirus are required for treatment. However, this may induce an immune response that makes it less effective. When adenovirus DNA is replicated, however, the DNA is not transcribed- there is no extra chromosome, meaning that the adenovirus must be injected over and over again. Generally, this gene therapy is from crippled versions of the adenovirus because the natural one is too strong and could kill somebody. However, the vectors (derived from the adenovirus) can cripple the liver.
The virus is usually subdued by the immune system because it has a certain amino acid called tyrosine. Tyrosine has, as part of its genetic makeup, a group of molecules which form an “hydroxyl group”. This group of molecules attracts phosphate to the cell, and the phosphate tags the virus and sends it to a cellular trash can, a proteasome. Scienctists took out the tyrosine and replaced it with an amino acid that is almost exactly the same (phenylalanine) except that it lacks the group that attracts phosphate, so it doesn’t get “thrown in the trash”.
Since tyrosine is found in seven spots on the adenovirus, scientists replaced these seven spots with seven different new vectors for a blood clotting protein. This could prove very useful to patients with hemophilia B, a disease which prevents coagulation, because they do not naturally produce the protein. All of these vectors worked better than the usual version of adenovirus, in some mice working 29 times better.
When the adenovirus is injected into the body, it goes to the cell and injects its genetic material into it. But instead of producing the proteins for another adenovirus, it produces the proteins that patients lack genetically. However, the DNA is not transcribed, meaning that the cell with the new protein would not have the extra genetic material to make more proteins if it went through mitosis.
Seneca Valley Virus-001
The SVV-001 is a potential treatment for some metastatic cancers, like small-cell lunch cancer. They have been shown through clinical trials as promising therapy. However, the virus targets normal cells as well as cancer cells. This virus was not inhibited by the blood, and it killed eye cancer and lung cancer tumors in mice effectively. In the mice, there was no need to limit the dose because the virus was toxic and the doses were well tolerated. It resulted in complete, durable responses in ten of ten and five of eight mice respectively. It is more cytotoxic to small-cell lung cancer and solid pediatric cancer than other tumors and cells. So far, it is unclear whether an immune response would reduce the effectiveness of the virus. However, it kills cancers cells 10,000 times better than traditional chemotherapy. The virus is a pathogen believed to originate from cows or pigs. It is harmless to normal human cells but can infect certain solid cancers. The structure of the DNA is unique among picornaviruses (it is a picornavirus) which allows it to target cells so specifically. Adenoviruses have been used by scientists to jump-start the hearts of humans and rabbits.
Seneca Valley Virus- the red, green and blue strands are the DNA
trained in Chipping Sodbury as an apprentice to Daniel Ludlow-surgeon
Then he trained under surgeon John Hunter and others at St George’s Hospital
1773-became a successful general practitioner and surgeon
He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1788, following a careful study combining observation, experiment and dissection into a description of the misunderstood life of the cuckoo in the nest.
His findings were published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1787
1788- smallpox hit Gloucestershire but the people who didn’t get it were the ones who were working with cow
In 1792- got his M.D. from the University of St. Andrews
Jenner made the procedure clearly understood for smallpox
Had no clue about Benjamin Jesty’s conclusions when he made his own experiment
Theorized that pus in the blisters which milkmaid received from cowpox protected them from smallpox
Tested theory on James Phipps, young 8 year old boy with cowpox blisters from Sarah Nelmes, milkmaid who got it from a cow named Blossom
He took some liquid from Nelmes and some liquid from another patient with smallpox and discovered that the liquid from the cowpox defended the person from smallpox
Jenner injected the pus into both arms of Phipps, then transferred Nelme’s blisters to Phipps which caused fever and uneasiness
Then injected Phipps with a variolous material that caused immunity at that time
Tested this on 23 subjects
Was made into vaccination, then was accepted
1840- British government banned vairolation and used vaccination instead
Vaccination-vacca means cow and vaccinia means cowpox, Jenner invented this word
Also invented the word virus
Was given 10,000 pounds from King in petitioning Parliament
1806- given 20,000 pounds for the continuation of his work
Died from an apparent stroke at age 74
Even though the vaccinations and smallpox are gone, scientists still have samples of it in their labs
Jenner’s discoveries help scientists find cures to diseases and maybe someday will help find a cure to arthritis, AIDS, and others
1980- World Health Assembly declared that the world and people are free of smallpox
2003- stopped giving vaccinations because it cause many heart problems
2007- found a new live virus to put in the vaccination to make it safe and effective
In order to make a new and more effective vaccination, they have to test it on something
Since they don’t want to test it on humans and they can’t test it on animals because they would have to be injected with smallpox which could give false outcomes
It is mandatory for the following to receive the vaccination: United States Air Force, Airman sent to the Middle East, U.S. Army, any US Marine, Marine or US Navy sailor being sent to sea, and Department of Defense employees and contractors traveling to the United States Central Command's Area of Responsibility
Today we use vaccinations for smallpox, but before
Jenner's Initial Theory:
The initial source of infection was a disease of horses, called "the grease", and that this was transferred to cows by farmworkers, transformed, and then manifested as cowpox.
Known:
Smallpox is more dangerous than variolation and cowpox less dangerous than variolation.
Hypothesis:
Infection with cowpox gives immunity to smallpox.
Test:
If variolation after infection with cowpox fails to produce a smallpox infection, immunity to smallpox has been achieved.
Consequence:
Immunity to smallpox can be induced much more safely than by variolation.
Virology byCameron Brenner, Rachel Butler, Lital Avnor, Naomi Mayman, Are Salzberg, and Tali Silverstone
D-Res
What is a virus?
Harmful viruses
By Tali SilverstoneEbola Virus
Ebola Virus is a severe, often-fatal disease in humans and nonhuman primates such as monkeys, gorillas, and chimpanzees. It was first recognized in Africa. People can be exposed to Ebola virus from direct contact with the blood of an infected person. People can also be exposed to Ebola virus through direct contact with objects, such as needles, that have been infected. It is not airborne. The symptoms of Ebola consists of a fever, headache, joint and muscle aches, sore throat, and weakness, followed by diarrhea, vomiting, and stomach pain a rash, red eyes, internal and external bleeding. Doctors and scientists have not yet found a standard treatment besides antibiotics for Ebola Virus. The recovery for Ebola virus takes about 9-21 days.
Helpful viruses
Adenovirus
Adenoviruses cause the common cold, and can effectively carry the new corrected DNA to the nucleus of the cell. In order to use these as vectors, their harmful genes are removed.The genes, however, are not integrated in the DNA. Therefore, they are not permanent, lasting for a few days to a few weeks. Adenoviruses can also invade slower dividing cells, such as lung cells. Large amounts of adenovirus are required for treatment. However, this may induce an immune response that makes it less effective. When adenovirus DNA is replicated, however, the DNA is not transcribed- there is no extra chromosome, meaning that the adenovirus must be injected over and over again. Generally, this gene therapy is from crippled versions of the adenovirus because the natural one is too strong and could kill somebody. However, the vectors (derived from the adenovirus) can cripple the liver.
The virus is usually subdued by the immune system because it has a certain amino acid called tyrosine. Tyrosine has, as part of its genetic makeup, a group of molecules which form an “hydroxyl group”. This group of molecules attracts phosphate to the cell, and the phosphate tags the virus and sends it to a cellular trash can, a proteasome. Scienctists took out the tyrosine and replaced it with an amino acid that is almost exactly the same (phenylalanine) except that it lacks the group that attracts phosphate, so it doesn’t get “thrown in the trash”.
Since tyrosine is found in seven spots on the adenovirus, scientists replaced these seven spots with seven different new vectors for a blood clotting protein. This could prove very useful to patients with hemophilia B, a disease which prevents coagulation, because they do not naturally produce the protein. All of these vectors worked better than the usual version of adenovirus, in some mice working 29 times better.
When the adenovirus is injected into the body, it goes to the cell and injects its genetic material into it. But instead of producing the proteins for another adenovirus, it produces the proteins that patients lack genetically. However, the DNA is not transcribed, meaning that the cell with the new protein would not have the extra genetic material to make more proteins if it went through mitosis.
Sources:
-en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_therapy <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_therapy>
-library.thinkquest.org/04apr/00217/en/.../genet/index.html <http://library.thinkquest.org/04apr/00217/en/.../genet/index.html>
-http://www.fda.gov/BiologicsBloodVaccines/ScienceResearch/BiologicsResearchAreas/ ucm127156.htm
-www.rkm.com.au/VIRUS/ADENOVIRUS/adenovirus.html <http://www.rkm.com.au/VIRUS/ADENOVIRUS/adenovirus.html>
-www.slimfilms.com/graphics/6adenovirus.jpeg <http://www.slimfilms.com/graphics/6adenovirus.jpeg>
-http://www.genetherapynet.com/viral-vectors/adenoviruses.html
-http://news.ufl.edu/2008/05/19/aav-delivery/
Seneca Valley Virus-001
The SVV-001 is a potential treatment for some metastatic cancers, like small-cell lunch cancer. They have been shown through clinical trials as promising therapy. However, the virus targets normal cells as well as cancer cells. This virus was not inhibited by the blood, and it killed eye cancer and lung cancer tumors in mice effectively. In the mice, there was no need to limit the dose because the virus was toxic and the doses were well tolerated. It resulted in complete, durable responses in ten of ten and five of eight mice respectively. It is more cytotoxic to small-cell lung cancer and solid pediatric cancer than other tumors and cells. So far, it is unclear whether an immune response would reduce the effectiveness of the virus. However, it kills cancers cells 10,000 times better than traditional chemotherapy. The virus is a pathogen believed to originate from cows or pigs. It is harmless to normal human cells but can infect certain solid cancers. The structure of the DNA is unique among picornaviruses (it is a picornavirus) which allows it to target cells so specifically. Adenoviruses have been used by scientists to jump-start the hearts of humans and rabbits.
Sources :
-jnci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/short/99/21/1623 -http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/short/99/21/1623>
-www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071030160940.htm -http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071030160940.htm-http://www.scientificblogging.com/news_releases/senecavirus_structure_revealed_oh_and_it_still_kills_cancer_cells_10_000_times_better_than_traditional_chemotherap
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081008151320.htmhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wX456hbIouw
Virologists
By Lital AvnorEdward Jenner
United States Department of Health and Human Services
Other Websites:
**http://www.sc.edu/library/spcoll/nathist/jenner.html**
**http://www.zephyrus.co.uk/edwardjenner.html**
**http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox_vaccine**
Cam's examples